{"id":14410,"date":"2023-03-06T08:20:12","date_gmt":"2023-03-06T07:20:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/?p=14410"},"modified":"2025-07-31T17:22:05","modified_gmt":"2025-07-31T15:22:05","slug":"deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/","title":{"rendered":"Deionised and Ultrapure Water: Production and Use"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_73 ez-toc-wrap-center counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-white ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Table of contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #999;color:#999\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/#Distillation_%E2%80%93_The_Oldest_Method_of_Purification\" title=\"Distillation \u2013 The Oldest Method of Purification\">Distillation \u2013 The Oldest Method of Purification<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/#Methods_for_Producing_Deionised_Water\" title=\"Methods for Producing Deionised Water\">Methods for Producing Deionised Water<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/#Fully_Deionised_Water_Through_Ion_Exchange\" title=\"Fully Deionised Water Through Ion Exchange\">Fully Deionised Water Through Ion Exchange<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/#Deionised_Water_Through_Reverse_Osmosis\" title=\"Deionised Water Through Reverse Osmosis\">Deionised Water Through Reverse Osmosis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/#Ultrapure_Water_%E2%80%93_The_Highest_Level_of_Purity\" title=\"Ultrapure Water \u2013 The Highest Level of Purity\">Ultrapure Water \u2013 The Highest Level of Purity<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/en\/deionised-and-ultrapure-water-production-and-use\/#Which_Water_for_Which_Application\" title=\"Which Water for Which Application?\">Which Water for Which Application?<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><strong>Fully demineralised water, also known as deionised, demi-water, demineralised, distilled, or ultrapure water \u2014 all look just like regular tap or spring water but contain very few or no foreign substances at all. In contrast, tap or spring sources always contain a significant amount of dissolved salts. These include cations like magnesium (Mg<sup>2+<\/sup>), calcium (Ca<sup>2+<\/sup>), sodium (Na<sup>+<\/sup>), or potassium (K<sup>+<\/sup>), and anions like chloride (Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup>), bicarbonate (HCO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>\u2013<\/sup>), or sulfate (SO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2<\/sup><sup>\u2013<\/sup>). These ions contribute to the electrical conductivity and are therefore an indicator of purity.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The conductivity indicates the degree of purity. The lower the conductivity, the higher the purity. Conductivity is usually given in microsiemens per centimeter (\u00b5S\/cm). According to drinking water regulations in Germany, the limit is 2,500 \u00b5S\/cm at +20 \u00b0C. By comparison, seawater conductivity varies by region between 45,000 \u00b5S\/cm and 60,000 \u00b5S\/cm.<\/p>\n<div class=\"box info  \"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"fa tie-shortcode-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t For industrial use, water is categorized as purified with a conductivity of 1 to 50 \u00b5S\/cm, fully demineralised (VE water) with a conductivity between 0.1 and 1 \u00b5S\/cm, and ultrapure with a conductivity below 0.1 \u00b5S\/cm.\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Distillation_%E2%80%93_The_Oldest_Method_of_Purification\"><\/span>Distillation \u2013 The Oldest Method of Purification<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Distilled water, as the name suggests, is produced through distillation, where the water is heated to its boiling point and the steam is collected and condensed. The distillate is practically free of salts and largely free of organic substances as well. The conductivity of this water is below 20 \u00b5S\/cm and can be further reduced through multiple distillations using quartz apparatus. However, distillation is a very energy-intensive process.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Methods_for_Producing_Deionised_Water\"><\/span>Methods for Producing Deionised Water<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Deionised water can be produced by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/filtration\/ion-exchange-membranes\">ion exchange<\/a> or by reverse osmosis.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Fully_Deionised_Water_Through_Ion_Exchange\"><\/span>Fully Deionised Water Through Ion Exchange<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In ion exchange, the water to be purified flows through cation and anion exchange resins or through mixed bed exchangers that contain both types of resins. Mixed bed exchangers, also called mixed bed filters, are mainly used in industrial applications.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_8470\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-8470\" style=\"width: 450px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-8470 size-full\" title=\"Purification system for demineralised boiler water using ion exchange\" src=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/aufbereitungsanlage-fuer-demineralisiertes-boiler-wasser.jpg\" alt=\"Purification system for demineralised boiler water using ion exchange\" width=\"450\" height=\"333\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/aufbereitungsanlage-fuer-demineralisiertes-boiler-wasser.jpg 450w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/aufbereitungsanlage-fuer-demineralisiertes-boiler-wasser-300x222.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-8470\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><center>Purification system for demineralised boiler water using ion exchange<\/center><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In this process, cations are exchanged for hydrogen ions (H<sup>+<\/sup>) and anions for hydroxide ions (OH<sup>\u2013<\/sup>). Once the exchange resins are saturated and can no longer absorb ions, they must be regenerated or replaced. For regeneration, diluted hydrochloric acid (HCl) or diluted sulfuric acid (H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub>) is used for cation exchangers, and diluted sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) for anion exchangers. The conductivity of deionised water obtained this way is below 5 \u00b5S\/cm.<\/p>\n<div class=\"box error  \"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"fa tie-shortcode-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t\n<p>Demineralization by ion exchange does not remove organic substances, viruses, or bacteria. To remove these, an additional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/filtration\">filtration<\/a> step is necessary.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Deionised water is also called demi-water, or demineralised, water. If it is also sterilized, it is marketed as distilled-equivalent.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: justify;\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Deionised_Water_Through_Reverse_Osmosis\"><\/span>Deionised Water Through Reverse Osmosis<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Reverse osmosis is a filtration method in which the water to be purified is forced through a semipermeable membrane. Semipermeable means that the membrane allows water molecules to pass but blocks dissolved salts, particles, organic impurities, viruses, and bacteria.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Osmosis refers to the one-sided diffusion of a substance through a semipermeable membrane without external pressure. Imagine two aqueous solutions with different salt concentrations separated by a semipermeable membrane. Water will diffuse from the lower concentration solution to the higher concentration solution until the concentrations equalize. The force with which the solvent of the less concentrated solution is attracted to the more concentrated solution is called osmotic pressure.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">If pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to the more concentrated salt solution, the osmotic process is reversed. Since the membrane only allows water molecules to pass, only these migrate from the more concentrated solution to the less concentrated one. As a result, the salt concentration in the more concentrated solution continues to increase, while the less concentrated solution becomes even more diluted. This process is called reverse osmosis.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In desalination by reverse osmosis, such as the demineralization of drinking water, the process runs not against a low-concentration salt solution but against pure water. Since the salt concentration on the side of the non-demineralised water keeps increasing, it must be flushed at regular intervals. This prevents excessive salt buildup and simultaneously removes retained organic impurities and particles into the wastewater. The conductivity of deionised water produced by reverse osmosis ranges between 5 and 20 \u00b5S\/cm.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_14568\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-14568\" style=\"width: 620px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-14568\" title=\"Reverse osmosis: Pressure is applied (A) to seawater (B) with contaminants (C). The semipermeable membrane (D) only allows water molecules to pass through, resulting in the solution of the second chamber (D) becoming more diluted.\" src=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Simple_RO_schematic.png\" alt=\"Reverse osmosis: Pressure is applied (A) to seawater (B) with contaminants (C). The semipermeable membrane (D) only allows water molecules to pass through, resulting in the solution of the second chamber (D) becoming more diluted.\" width=\"620\" height=\"275\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Simple_RO_schematic.png 1762w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Simple_RO_schematic-300x133.png 300w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Simple_RO_schematic-1024x454.png 1024w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Simple_RO_schematic-768x341.png 768w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/Simple_RO_schematic-1536x682.png 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 620px) 100vw, 620px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-14568\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><center>Reverse osmosis: Pressure is applied (A) to seawater (B) with contaminants (C). The semipermeable membrane (D) only allows water molecules to pass through, resulting in the solution of the second chamber (E) becoming more diluted.<\/center><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">While ion exchange requires chemicals to regenerate the exchange resins and produces wastewater containing chemicals, reverse osmosis uses significant amounts of water for flushing, which is then discharged as wastewater.<\/p>\n<div class=\"box note  \"><div class=\"box-inner-block\"><i class=\"fa tie-shortcode-boxicon\"><\/i>\n\t\t\t\n<p>The advantage of ion exchange compared to reverse osmosis is its efficiency: one liter of drinking water yields one liter of deionised water, whereas with reverse osmosis, less than 750 ml of deionised water is obtained from one liter of drinking water.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Ultrapure_Water_%E2%80%93_The_Highest_Level_of_Purity\"><\/span>Ultrapure Water \u2013 The Highest Level of Purity<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Producing ultrapure water is complex and requires combining multiple purification steps. First, larger particles and suspended solids are removed by filtration, followed by demineralization through reverse osmosis or ion exchange.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Ultrafiltration then removes microparticles, organic substances, and colloids. UV irradiation at 254 nm eliminates germs and bacteria, sterilizing the water. This results in ultrapure water with a conductivity below 0.1\u00a0\u00b5S\/cm that is sterile and germ-free.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Due to the removal of all metal ions, ultrapure water is very aggressive toward many metallic alloys. Pipes made of copper or brass are attacked by this medium, dissolving ions from the metals.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Therefore, physiologically safe and chemically inert <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/tubes-hoses\/tubing-made-of-elastomers-soft-rubber\">rubber tubing<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/tubes-hoses\/tubings-and-pipes-made-of-rigid-plastics\">plastic tubing<\/a> \u2014 such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/tubes-hoses\/application-fields-for-tubings\/drinking-water-hoses\">drinking water hoses<\/a> \u2014 is often used for ultrapure systems. Appropriate fittings like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/tube-hose-connectors\">tube &amp; hose connectors<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/cocks-taps-valves\">taps and valves<\/a> are also made from suitable polymers. Alternatively, various stainless steels can be used for ultrapure lines.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/tubes-hoses\/tubings-and-pipes-made-of-rigid-plastics\/pe-tubing\/28744\/lldpe-tubing-for-drinking-water-supply\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-8479 size-full\" title=\"LLDPE Tubing for Drinking Water Supply\" src=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/lldpe-schlauch-fuer-die-trinkwasserversorgung.jpg\" alt=\"LLDPE Tubing for Drinking Water Supply\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/lldpe-schlauch-fuer-die-trinkwasserversorgung.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/lldpe-schlauch-fuer-die-trinkwasserversorgung-150x150.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/tubes-hoses\/tubing-made-of-elastomers-soft-rubber\/nbr-tubing\/28557\/nbr-drinking-water-tubing-ktw\/dvgw\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-8480 size-full\" title=\"NBR Drinking Water Tubing - KTW\/DVGW\" src=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/nbr-trinkwasserschlauch-ktw-dvgw.jpg\" alt=\"NBR Drinking Water Tubing - KTW\/DVGW\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/nbr-trinkwasserschlauch-ktw-dvgw.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/nbr-trinkwasserschlauch-ktw-dvgw-150x150.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Which_Water_for_Which_Application\"><\/span>Which Water for Which Application?<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The required purity always depends on its intended use.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">For most applications, fully demineralised water is entirely sufficient. In chemical and biochemical laboratories, as well as in many technical areas, deionised water is the standard rinsing and solvent medium. For example, in car washes, deionised water is typically used in the final rinse to prevent lime spots on the car&#8217;s paint.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Many households, especially those in mountainous regions where the supply is particularly rich in minerals, have their own \u201csoftening or decalcification system.\u201d In these systems, tap water flows through an ion exchange resin bed that replaces calcium and magnesium ions and other multivalent cations with sodium ions. This turns \u201chard\u201d tap water into \u201csoft\u201d water for domestic use, minimizing scale buildup in household appliances like heaters, boilers, and kettles. Washing machines and dishwashers are often equipped with their own cation exchangers to prevent gradual scaling of the appliances, especially their heating elements.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/filtration\/filter-housings-filterelements-and-filtermodules\/30829\/filter-element-with-activated-carbon-purification-of-water\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-8484 size-full\" title=\"Filter Element with Activated Carbon - purification of water\" src=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/filterelement-mit-aktivkohle-wasseraufbereitung1.jpg\" alt=\"Filter Element with Activated Carbon - purification of water\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/filterelement-mit-aktivkohle-wasseraufbereitung1.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/filterelement-mit-aktivkohle-wasseraufbereitung1-150x150.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/en\/cocks-taps-valves\/stopcocks-and-straight-way-cocks\/29393\/high-chem-shut-off-cock-made-of-pp-for-drinking-water\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-8485 size-full\" title=\"High-Chem Shut-off Cock made of PP for Drinking Water\" src=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/absperrhahn-aus-pp-fuer-trinkwasser.jpg\" alt=\"High-Chem Shut-off Cock made of PP for Drinking Water\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/absperrhahn-aus-pp-fuer-trinkwasser.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.rct-online.de\/magazin\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/absperrhahn-aus-pp-fuer-trinkwasser-150x150.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">For some applications, however, ultrapure water is indispensable. Especially in the semiconductor industry, where structures between a few nanometers and a few micrometers are produced, using ultrapure water is essential for manufacturing computer chips and integrated circuits.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In pharmaceutical production, for manufacturing injection solutions, and for diluting solutions in sensitive research fields like biochemistry, microbiology, and genetic engineering, extremely high standards are required for water quality. According to the European Pharmacopoeia, the electrical conductivity at +20 \u00b0C must not exceed 1.1 \u00b5S\/cm. In addition, nitrate content must not be higher than 0.2 mg\/l, the total organic carbon (TOC) must not exceed 0.5 mg\/l, and the level of bacterial endotoxins, which indicates the presence of bacteria, must be below 25 ng\/l.<\/p>\n<pre><strong>Image sources:<\/strong>\r\nHeader image | \u00a9 Sakan \u2013 stock.adobe.com\r\nPurification system for demineralised boiler water | \u00a9 Z22, CC BY-SA 4.0 https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons \u2013 stock.adobe.com\r\nReverse osmosis schematic: By Colby Fisher - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?curid=25213532\r\n<\/pre>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Fully demineralised water, also known as deionised, demi-water, demineralised, distilled, or ultrapure water \u2014 all look just like regular tap or spring water but contain very few or no foreign substances at all. In contrast, tap or spring sources always contain a significant amount of dissolved salts. These include cations like magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), &hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":13,"featured_media":12965,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1,3028,2744],"tags":[3178,3179,3180,3181,3176,3183,3175,3177,3182,3184],"class_list":["post-14410","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","","category-all-articles","category-alle-beitraege-en","category-chemical-technology-in-action","tag-deionized-water","tag-deionized-water-production","tag-deionized-water-production-by-ion-exchange","tag-deionized-water-production-by-reverse-osmosis","tag-demineralization-by-reverse-osmosis","tag-fully-demineralized-water","tag-ultrapure-water","tag-ultrapure-water-production","tag-use-of-deionized-water","tag-water-treatment"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v23.1 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Deionised and Ultrapure Water: Production and Use - 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